The Role of AI and 3D Printing in Terrorism Understanding the Threats

By Ahmed Al-Gaisi

     Part 1 of this article explored the potential threats posed by Generative AI in the context of extremist groups. This part focuses the threats of 3D-printed improvised firearms, covering its history, types, legality, and other relevant aspects. By exploring these topics, this article proposes an approach that can serve as a potential solution to prevent spreading malicious uses of both AI and 3D-printed firearms by extremist groups, including far-right supporters.

3D-Printed Improvised Weapons

3D printing, an additive technology, presents growing security risks. Defined by its ability to create objects using a wide variety of materials (including among others, plastic, and polymers) through the use of computer-aided design (CAD) software, 3D printing involves the successive layering of materials until a final three-dimensional object is formed. While 3D printing has primarily been used for civilian purposes, its potential applications extend across various fields [i].

A Developed Technology

 3D printing technology, originally known as "rapid prototyping," has been in use since the 1980s to quickly produce scale models of physical parts.. However, in 2013, it gained a seminal dual-use nature when the online open-source hardware organization Defense Distributed released some digital files (an instruction manual) for the first almost entirely 3D-printed gun, the Liberator, with only a handful of plastic parts. Within two days, the files were downloaded more than 100,000 times.The Austrian Interior Ministry then highlighted that the pistol was a deadly weapon. In the same year, digital files of a semi-automatic rifle (22LR) were also posted online. Today, books of instructions have become more sophisticated than the Liberator and the 22LR, and entire online hobbyists and enthusiasts’ firearm communities already exist for 3D firearms, with many using coded languages and pushing the boundaries of creating their own innovations for malicious purposes. Moreover, the cost of 3D printers in 2010 decreased while technical quality improved, allowing many new individuals to access this technology[ii]. This is why 3D printing now has potential terrorist and far-right uses[iii].

After the Liberator electronic manual by Defense Distributor in 2013, the US Department of State demanded the removal of these files due to a violation of the International Traffic of Arms Regulations[iv]. In 2015, Defense Distributor filed a lawsuit against the US Department of State, and it later offered a settlement in 2018. However, a federal judge in Washington enjoined the settlement, blocking the release of 3D-printed guns[v]. Subsequently, Defense Distributed released a large online library (DEFCAD) in order for clients to download 3D printable firearms files. More recently, Defense Distributed introduced a desktop CNC mill machine specifically designed to manufacture AR-15 semi-automatic rifles. To date, multiple federal and state lawsuits are pending, challenging the legality of 3D-printed firearm files, which leaves the field largely unregulated in the US[vi].

3D-Printed Weapons Types

3D firearm printing can be categorized into three types: (1) fully 3D-printed firearms, (2) hybrid 3D-printed firearms (which include steel tubing, metal bar stocks, and springs), and (3) parts kit completions. Most of these firearms can only fire a limited number of shots before they malfunction. However, the third type, parts kit completions, is more expensive and has become more popular in the US since the COVID-19 pandemic due to supply chain disruptions[vii].

Real Threats and Incidents

In 2019, the potential threat of 3D-printed weapons manifested itself; a far-right terrorist used, along with other weapons, five 3D-printed improvised firearms to carry out an attack on a synagogue in Halle, Germany. During the attack many 3D weapons malfunctioned due to repeated shootings[viii]. Some experts assert that users can overcome this issue by using hybrid 3D-printed guns or resort to rapidly developing technologies. In 2020, a former driver in the British Army was sentenced to 18 years in prison for some offences including having chemical raw material to make explosives via 3D printing, along with an instructional manual on how to produce 3D firearms. Shortly after, a boy (15 years) was caught with digital instructions on how to make explosives from household material and firearms through 3D printing. In 2021, the UK witnessed two separate arrests for offences involving 3D-printed firearms. In 2025, the British Counter Terrorism Command said that a 33-year-old man was sentenced to 7 years, as he was found guilty of terrorist offences, including storing instructions on how to make 3D-printed weapons[ix] [x].

  At the same time, there is a notable overlap between attacks in both the real and the virtual worlds. These cases, along with others, have raised awareness among security forces, leading to the recording of similar incidents in Spain, Ireland, Sweden, and Finland, which have issued warnings about the potential terrorist use of 3D-printed firearms[xi].

3D-Printed Firearms Legality

Moreover, the regulation of 3D-printed firearms and the ownership of their digital files is a country-based regulation. For example, in the US, 3D-printed firearms are permitted for personal use only, including the creation of hybrid 3D firearms, which are easy to be detected through a walk-through metal detector compared to fully 3D-prited guns. In contrast, Australia’s New South Wales has prohibited them, while Germany and the UK allow them for authorized individuals only. Singapore, moreover, has recently updated regulations to ban 3D-printed firearms. Despite these efforts, it remains surprisingly easy to create or own 3D-printed firearm[xii].

3D Printing and Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)

  Furthermore, some researchers have highlighted the potential threats of 3D printing to develop weapons of mass destruction (WMD). 3D printing, notably, can create gas centrifuges using carbon fibre, or produce radiological explosives (which cause radiation poisoning without a nuclear explosion). While some argue its current potential threat is low, 3D printing has the ability to fabricate laboratory equipment that could be used to produce bio-weapons. In addition to the ability to produce miniaturised fluidic reaction waste devicesto process chemical agents and deliver them to disperse pathogens by tools such as drones in particular. For example, in 2023, a Birmingham University PhD student, mechanical engineer, was arrested by British police for printing a 3D drone capable of delivering a chemical weapon for ISIS using synthetic biology or disruptive technologies[xiii] [xiv].

Other 3D printing areas are being explored, or tested, such as bacterial printing, heat exchangers, and numerous others, which means that threats associated with 3D printing will continue to evolve with technological developments. However, producing gas centrifuges in the large quantities required may present an obstacle, while acquiring them through illegal means could become a solution for terrorists[xv].

This clearly indicates that the 3D printing potential threat must not be underestimated, especially the growing prevalence of the online “Do It Yourself” (DIY) culture, where the knowledge required is mainly theoretical[xvi]. Additionally, the accelerating development of language models, a statistical term related to AI techniques, further contributes to the ease with which individuals can access and exploit such technologies. 

Recommendations

To conclude, in the light of accelerated developments, there is an urgent need to raise social awareness regarding the potential threats posed by AI and 3D printing, which is described as absurdly or incredibly easy to create or own due to the lack of governmental oversight or control. Developing an ad hoc strategy requires a unified international orientation, including the launch of global initiatives to monitor such technologies through appropriate regulations and laws, especially since leading tech companies have reduced monitoring standards.

In this context, promoting media and information e-learning curricula can help mitigate the malicious impacts of AI and 3D printing both on the individual and social levels, aiming to address digital and information illiteracy as well as combat disinformation.

There have been some efforts in this direction, such as the ‘International Conference on 3D Printing Firearms’ held by Europol in 2022. Notably, “1450 Committee”[xvii], and the UN Office of Countering   Terrorism have already developed a Global Counter-Terrorism Programme on Autonomous and Remotely Operated Systems.Further, the UN Secretary-General’s Roadmap for Digital Cooperation has launched several initiatives, including the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Office Global Program on Cybersecurity and New Technologies. However, further actions should be taken, with governments, private companies, and academics, among other stakeholders, playing key roles in developing and investing in sustainable counteracting strategies.

It is also worth noting that only removing or downgrading the increasing malicious content is insufficient, (reportedly, millions of pages have been removed) as new content is uploaded on a daily basis. In other words, adopting suitable laws and regulations is crucial to ensure that human rights are not violated in the name of freedom of speech.